When was dha discovered

In further research on 35 autopsied infants, the length of breast feeding was proportional to the concentration of cortex DHA [ 86 ]. In a single-blinded, randomized, controlled trial of DHA in infant formula, infants were randomized to receive DHA versus no-DHA supplemented formula if the mothers had elected to bottle feed from birth, but a group of breast-fed infants were included as a reference group. It was noted that mothers that chose to breast feed had attained a higher level of education than those who opted to formula feed, a potential confounding variable in that those babies may be more intelligent due to hereditary or social status related influences.

Further, erythrocyte phospholipid DHA was the only fatty acid which was correlated with VEP in all infant groups at both measurement times. Makrides et al. In children in the UK on an abbreviated Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children, those that had received breast feeding in the weeks following birth had higher scores at age 7. The evidence is strong for a causal relationship between cerebral DHA phospholipids and visual and neurodevelopment [ 89 , 90 ].

Dietary induced changes in retinal DHA phospholipids have also been associated with changes in retinal function. However, some studies have shown no differences between formula fed and breast fed infants in visual and cognitive tests [ 91 ].

The studies by Birch and Hoffman et al. In healthy term infants, 79 were randomized into one of three diet groups, all exclusively formula-fed from birth, and a group of 29 exclusively breast-fed for at least 17 weeks. Thus there is no longer any question of the essentiality of DHA in infant nutrition.

One issue that requires further investigation is the determination of the precise amount of dietary DHA required for optimum growth and development. Researchers often use the levels of DHA in breast milk as the yardstick. However, over the second half of the last century, much of the DHA has been processed out of the food supply [ 94 ].

Most Western women are themselves at risk of DHA insufficiency [ 95 ]. Trans fatty acids, such as those found in many processed manufactured foods, are rapidly incorporated into breast milk and are associated with adverse effects in infants and children [ 97 ].

Another contemporary issue of importance to Western women and public health bodies is the potential risk of exposure to contaminants, such as methyl-mercury, from agricultural run-offs in coastal seafood and the harm this may have on neurodevelopment. These concerns are reflected by public health advice to limit seafood consumption during pregnancy. In the US it is recommended to limit seafood consumption to g per week during pregnancy.

However, Hibbeln et al. After adjustment for 28 potential confounding variables, consumption of less than g per week of seafood was independently associated with the child being in the lowest quartile for verbal intelligence quotient compared with mothers that had consumed over g per week seafood. Low seafood intake was also associated with lower development on a range of outcomes relating to social behavior, communication and fine motor skills.

Hibbeln et al. In another study, Hibbeln et al. Cohort studies have demonstrated the long-term impact of the deficiency of DHA from infant formula. DHA status at birth was correlated with problem internalizing behaviors in Dutch children at 7 years, an observation that was not present in breast fed infants [ ]. Animal studies have demonstrated that DHA deficiency during gestation and soon after birth could not be fully corrected later in life.

At 33 weeks, the hypothalamus glycerophospholipids of young pups had significantly reduced DHA compared with controls that had received ALA for 3 weeks after birth even after dietary correction with ALA for 30 weeks. It appeared that the early deficiency of ALA had irreversibly down-regulated the converting enzyme delta-6 desaturase [ ].

Over the past century this balance has been dramatically shifted in favor of the omega-6 fatty acids. The agricultural and industrial revolutions and inventions such as that of the seed drill have led to a dramatic increase in the availability of the fatty acids from seed oil, rich in the omega-6 fatty acid, linoleic acid [ ].

The domestication of livestock and poultry, resulted in a shift in livestock feed from an n-3 rich plant based diet to an n-6 rich seed based diet. For instance, arachidonic acid is the predominate polyunsaturated fatty acid found in the meat of Western cultures, where DHA and AA are represented about equally in the meat of free-range wild animals such as the meat source of the Paleolithic diet today [ ]. During the s the epidemic in coronary heart disease was attributed to the increased consumption of saturated fatty acids.

Public health campaigns in Western countries such as the US and Australia urged the public to reduce fats and to replace saturated fatty acids with polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Trans fats were freely introduced into the food supply in processed manufactured products, such as margarines, in many Western countries. However, it was not until much later that the research could capture the data associating the detrimental effects of these fats on health [ , ].

Increased intake of saturated fats and tran s fatty acids not only displaces intake of dietary essential fatty acids, but blocks their biosynthesis [ ]. Because the n-3 and n-6 fatty acids compete with each other for the same enzymes, notably delta-6 desaturase , an excess of omega-6 dominates the enzyme, further inhibiting the synthesis of the omega-3 fatty acids [ , ].

In evolutionary terms the last century is an incredibly short period of time. The underlying factor for the increases in the incidences of these diseases may be attributable to an inadequate proportion of DHA in membrane phospholipids, driven largely by excessive consumption of omega-6 fatty acids. There has been much interest in DHA in recent years, particularly with regards to a promising role for the nutrient in neurodevelopment, neurocognition and neurodegenerative disorders. There is promising emerging research into a role for DHA in the prevention of neuropsychiatric disorders such as psychosis [ ] and affective disorders [ ].

Perhaps the most cutting edge body of emerging work is examining a role for DHA in the facilitation of adaptation during stress [ , , , , , , , ]. The recognition that omega-3 fatty acids, particularly DHA, may improve resilience for soldiers echoes the observations made of the early humans that the discovery of seafood may have helped to increase resilience to natural pressures.

A possible role for DHA in adaptation and resilience is an exceedingly interesting line of investigation. Driven by consumer demand, and despite additional production costs, modern food processors are increasingly fortifying manufactured food products, particularly milk, bread and eggs with DHA from algae and fish oil [ ].

Algal-DHA is being fed to domestic animals to enrich the polyunsaturated portion of red meat and eggs [ ]. Novel GM oilseeds are also being researched for supplementation to domestic animal feed [ ].

A review of intervention studies of milk supplemented with fish oil demonstrates that consumption of DHA-enriched milk was associated with beneficial health effects comparable with direct fish consumption, such as the reduction of LDL cholesterol and serum triglycerides [ ]. The meat and eggs from pasture-fed animals contain significantly higher proportions of EPA and DHA than those from farm intensive methods that incorporate seed feeding practices, rich in LA.

Animal feed supplemented with grain, such as for chicken food and as found in the extensive use of feedlots for beef accelerate the loss of DHA from the diet and subsequently from phospholipids [ , , ].

These differences are most extreme for DHA. Modern humans have adapted to a dietary intake of preformed DHA. The displacement of DHA from the diet has been driven by an excessive over-consumption of omega-6 fatty acids, which has resulted in the gradual depletion of DHA from membrane phospholipids.

There is strong evidence for the benefits of DHA supplementation in the prevention of primary and secondary heart disease and promising evidence is emerging for its benefits in neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders.

There is an urgent imperative to continue this research in light of findings that brain disorders have become the leading cost of the burden of ill-health in the member states of the European Union [ ]. DHA is a unique nutrient that should be regularly consumed as oily fish or supplemented as fish oil or algal supplements. In addition, a diet consisting of pasture-fed livestock and poultry will provide meat and eggs with higher proportions of DHA.

Fortified bread and milk will also provide higher levels of DHA. It appears that Western consumers and health bodies alike are becoming increasingly aware of the potential benefits offered by reinstating this ancient nutrient as a nutritional staple for the optimization of physical and mental health and wellbeing. The three anonymous reviewers are gratefully acknowledged for the critical feedback, much of which has been incorporated into this paper.

National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Nutrients v. Published online May Joanne Bradbury. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer.

This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Modern humans have evolved with a staple source of preformed docosahexaenoic acid DHA in the diet.

Keywords: docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, omega-3 fatty acids, n-3 fatty acids, brain evolution, erythrocyte phospholipids, algal oil, fish oil, nutritional supplementation. Diet and the Evolution of the Large Human Brain A new picture is emerging which places nutrition, and docosahexaenoic acid DHA in particular, in an integral role in the evolution of human intelligence.

Dietary Fatty Acids Most fatty acids found naturally in the diet consist of long, straight hydrocarbon chains with a carboxylic acid group at one end and usually a methyl group at the terminal end. Nutritional Essentiality Linoleic n-6 and linolenic n-3 acids are synthesized from oleic acid in plant tissue by the insertion of double-bonds between the existing double-bond and the methyl omega end of the side chain [ 12 ].

Cell Membrane Phospholipids Animal cell membranes consist of a thin bilayer of phospholipids that is continuous over the whole cell. Brain Uptake of DHA The brain is the most energy-demanding of all the human body organs, accounting for 2. Neurodevelopment The cerebral cortex of ten infants that had died of cot death were examined and correlated with their diet. Future Directions There has been much interest in DHA in recent years, particularly with regards to a promising role for the nutrient in neurodevelopment, neurocognition and neurodegenerative disorders.

References 1. Newman M. Richards M. Stable isotope evidence for increasing dietary breadth in the European mid-Upper Paleolithic. Broadhurst C.

Brain-specific lipids from marine, lacustrine, or terrestrial food resources: Potential impact on early African Homo sapien. B Biochem. Crawford M. Cerebral evolution. Evidence for the unique function of docosahexaenoic acid during the evolution of the modern hominid brain. Docosahexaenoic acid and cerebral evolution. World Rev. Cunnane S. Survival of the fattest: fat babies were the key to evolution of the large human brain.

A Mol. McMurry J. Fundamentals of General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. Holman R. Nutritional and metabolic interrelationships between fatty acids.

Beare-Rogers J. Welch A. Dietary intake and status of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in a population of fish-eating and non-fish-eating meat-eaters, vegetarians, and vegans and the precursor-product ratio of -linolenic acid to long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Results from the EPIC-Norfolk cohor.

Christie W. Fatty acids: Methylene-interrupted double bonds: Structures, occurrence and biochemistry. Shils M. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. Calder P. Omega-3 n-3 fatty acids, cardiovascular disease and stability of atherosclerotic plaques. Ziboh V. Biologic significance of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the skin. Saravanan P. Cardiovascular effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids. A case of human linolenic acid deficiency involving neurological abnormalities.

Bjerve K. Alpha-linolenic acid deficiency in man: Effect of ethyl linolenate on plasma and erythrocyte fatty acid composition and biosynthesis of prostanoids. Simopoulos A. Summary of the NATO advanced research workshop on dietary omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids: Biological effects and nutritional essentiality. Gebauer S. The essentiality of arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid.

Prostaglandins Leukot. Fatty Acids. Cho H. Cook H. Brain metabolism of alpha-linaolenic acid during development. Burdge G. Eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids are the principal products of alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in young men.

De Groot R. Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women. Sanders T. DHA status of vegetarians. Geppert J. Microalgal docosahexaenoic acid decreases plasma triacylglycerol in normolipidaemic vegetarians: A randomised trial. Whelan J. Docosahexaenoic acid: Measurements in food and dietary exposure. Brenna J. Workshop proceedings: DHA as a required nutrient. Essential fats for future health.

Proceedings of the 9th unilever nutrition symposium, May Various studies have confirmed that this is a much safer alternative to indoor and outdoor tanning, which puts people at risk for developing the deadliest type of skin cancer: melanoma. However, It has now been decades since agencies all around the world approved DHA for self-tanning use. It is, however, important not to inhale DHA or apply it to any areas with mucous membranes.

This is i. When using sunless tanning products, skincare experts advise consumers to avoid excess sun exposure and regularly apply sunscreen. So just because you look tanned, does not mean you should not take care. When you spend time outdoors, make sure to wear sunscreen that is at least SPF 30 to protect your skin from the sun.

Aside from following specific product instructions, here are some application tips to help you achieve the best results from sunless tanners.

Recent studies have found that DHA does not pose a risk to pregnant women or fetuses. A study published by the U. The American Pregnancy Association agrees.

While the organization discourages pregnant women from tanning on the beach or in a tanning bed, it states that sunless tanning lotions are safer alternatives. Because there is a potential risk of absorption, the association recommends waiting until after the first trimester to use self-tanning products. In general, it is best for pregnant or nursing women to avoid professional spray tans and spray tan booths. Researchers discover how DHA omega-3 fatty acid reaches brain.

Retrieved November 12, from www. Hungry for fatty acids, tumor cells in The research aimed to address the ScienceDaily shares links with sites in the TrendMD network and earns revenue from third-party advertisers, where indicated.

Print Email Share. Boy or Girl? Just a Game? Living Well. View all the latest top news in the environmental sciences, or browse the topics below:. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Keywords: bioeconomy, bioproduct, dihydroxyacetone DHA , glycerol, self-tanning products. Open in a separate window. Scheme 1. Figure 1. Outlook and Conclusions Since the s, when tanning was made trendy by Coco Chanel, 41 a tan has become highly fashionable across the world.

Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Acknowledgements We thank Dr Hiroshi Kimura, currently at nukaken. Notes R. Contributor Information Prof.

References 1. Davis L. Tamanna N. Food Sci. Nguyen B. Rajatanavin N. Martini M. Dobos A. Raber L. News , 78 , Wittgenstein E. Food and Drug Administration, Tanning , Berezhna, Self-Tanning Goes Upscale, businessoffashion.